Using Antonym In English Text And Malay Culture

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Using Antonym In English Text


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Antonym in english text

vidio call with native speaker

INTRODUCE OF LINGUISTICS

INTRODUCE OF LINGUISTICS

  
 A. What is linguistics ???

        
    Linguistics is the scientific , systematic, objective  study of language. and it is structure, including the study of grammar ,Sound , syntax, and phonetics specific branches of linguistics include sociolinguistics , dialectology, psycholinguistics, computational linguistics, comparative linguistics and structural linguistics.

The Sub-Fields of Linguistics
Language is a phenomenon with many layers, from the sounds that come out of people’s mouths to the meanings that those sounds express.  The field of Linguistics is composed of sub-fields, and most professional linguists become specialists in one or more of these sub-fields.  The major ones are:

Phonetics:  The study of speech sounds themselves.  Phoneticians study both the production of speech sounds by the human speech organs (articulatory phonetics) and the properties of the sounds themselves (acoustic phonetics).  Phoneticians are concerned with such questions as: …What are the sounds, from among all those that humans could make, that actually exist in the world’s languages? …What specially defines different “accents”? …Can speakers be identified by “voiceprints”? ...What are the properties of sounds that would apply in computerized speech synthesis?

Phonology:  The study of the organization of language sounds.  Phonologists are concerned with questions such as: …What sounds contrast in one language but not another (answers to such questions explain why Spanish speakers have trouble with the difference between English sh and ch, or why English speakers have trouble with the different “u” sounds in French words like rue ‘street’ and roue ‘wheel’.)? …What sounds of a language can or cannot occur one after the other (for example, why can words begin in st- in English but not in Spanish)? ...How do poets or writers or song lyrics intuitively know how to match the rhythm of speech to the abstract rhythmic pattern of a poetic or musical meter?

Morphology:  The study of word structure.  Morphologists examine such questions as: …To what extent are ways of forming words “productive” or not (e.g. why do English speakers say arrival and amusement but not *arrivement and *amusal)? …What determines when words change form (for example, why does English have to add –er to adjectives when making comparisons, but Hebrew does not add any equivalent)? …How can humans program computers to recognize the “root” of a word separated from its “affixes” (e.g. how could a computer recognize walk, walks, walking, and walked as the “same” word)?

Syntax:  The study of how linguistic units larger than the word are constructed.  Syntacticians address such questions as: …How can the number of sentences that speakers can create be infinite in number even though the number of words in any language is finite? …What makes a sentence like visiting relatives can be boring ambiguous? …Why would English speakers judge a sentence like colorless green ideas sleep furiously to be “grammatical” even though it is nonsensical? …How can languages express the same thoughts even though they construct their sentences in different ways (e.g. Why does English I saw them there mean the same thing as French je les y ai vus even though the order of elements in French is I them there have seen)? …How can humans program a computer to analyze the structure of sentences? 

Semantics:  The study of meaning.  Semanticists answer such questions as: …How do speakers know what words mean (e.g. How does one know where red stops and orange starts)? ...What is the basis of metaphors (e.g. Why is my car is a lemon a “good” metaphor but my car is a cabbage is not)? …What makes sentences like I’m looking for a tall student or the student I am looking for must be tall have more than one meaning? …In a sentence like I regret that he lied, how do we know that, in fact, he did lie? …How many meanings can be found in a sentence like three students read three books and why do just those meanings exist?

In addition to these basic sub-fields there are a number of “hyphenated” fields of Linguistics, which use the “tools” of the basic fields.  Some of these “hyphenated” fields are the following:

Historical linguistics: This is the study of how languages change over time, addressing such questions as why modern English is different form Old English and Middle English or what it means to say that English and German are “more closely related” to each other than English and French. 

Sociolinguistics:  This is the study of how Language is used in society, addressing such questions as what makes some dialects more “prestigious” than others, where slang comes from and why it arises, or what happens when two languages come together in “bilingual” communities. 

Psycholinguistics: This is the study of how language is processed in the mind, addressing such questions as how we can hear a string of language noises and make sense of them, how children can learn to speak and understand the language of their environment as quickly and effortlessly as they do, or how people with pathological language problems differ from people who have “normal” language.

Neurolinguistics: This is the study of the actual encoding of language in the brain, addressing such questions as what parts of the brain different aspects of language are stored in, how language is actually stored, what goes on physically in the brain when language is processed, or how the brain compensates when certain areas are damaged. 

Computational linguistics: Learning and understanding a language involves computing the properties of language that are described in phonology, syntax, and semantics from what is heard.  The challenge of describing how this is possible connects linguistics with computational issues at a very fundamental level.  How could syntactic structures be computed from spoken language, how are semantic relations recognized, and how could these computational skills be acquired?  Computational linguists attempt to answer these questions.

Journal review Making sense of syntax, Contrasting Universal Grammar with other approaches to language acquisition.

Making sense of syntax, Contrasting Universal Grammar with other approaches to language acquisition.

Expert :

Noam Chomsky
Chomsky in 2015
Born	Avram Noam Chomsky December 7, 1928 (age 88) Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, U.S.
Fields	Linguistics, analytic philosophy, cognitive science, political criticism
Institutions	·         MIT (1955–present) ·         Institute for Advanced Study (1958–1959)
Alma mater	·         University of Pennsylvania ·         Harvard Society of Fellows
Thesis	Transformational Analysis (1955)

 

Reviewed By : YUNDRI

Pekanbaru : University Of Lancang Kuning Riau.

       

      This article will review journal that present a complex Making sense of syntax, Contrasting Universal Grammar with other approaches to language acquisition. Proponents of a Universal Grammar approach argue that humans are born with a dedicated language system that shapes and restricts the number of grammars found in human languages (Chomsky, 2005). It is essentially innate and has a genetic manifestation. Such an innate system is necessary because human grammars are too complex to be passed on through social interactions and probabilistic learning.

Introduction

Learning to understand a language is a task of seemingly incredible complexity, which appears to be almost infinitely complex from an infants perspective. But the fact that children are indeed capable of acquiring a complex, arbitrary language that makes extensive use of grammar to convey meaning, requires an explantion with regard to the developmental and evolutionary origins of the human language capacity. Put rather bluntly, why is it that a typically developing human infant can acquire language, but her pet kitten cannot? (Yang, 2004, p. 451) Currently, there are a number of different approaches that try to explain the processes used by infants to decipher language by acquiring new words and learning the grammar of their language. The predominant approach of the last 50 years has been that children have an innate sense for grammar and syntax, shared by all humans—a Universal Grammar (Chomsky, 2005). The Universal Grammar approach is part of Chomsky's generative view of language acquisition (cf. V. Evans & Green, 2006).  

Language Universals

Universal Grammar is a biolinguistic approach to language acquisition and usage (Chomsky, 2005). The language model proposed by nativists is domain-specific; the cognitive processes underlying language processing differ qualitatively from other learning processes used by the child to understand the environment (Chater & Manning, 2006). later revisions of Chomsky's theory argue that Universal Grammar would serve as a preselector for all the available grammars, and depending on the socio-lingual context, the appropriate syntaxes would be acquired by the infant (Yang, 2004; Chomsky, 2005). Hence, Universal Grammar restricts possible human syntaxes, but still allows room for variation. Thus, it is argued that children explore possible options and gradually tune it to the adults (Crain, Goro, & Thornton, 2006). 

According to the nativist view of Universal Grammar, these achievements would be impossible without an innate and Universal Grammar: The language stimuli that children are exposed to are simply too noisy and incomplete to allow for reliable understanding of language through induction. Thus, much of the support for an innate Universal Grammar is drawn from the observation that children are exposed to impoverished language stimuli. Whilst Universal Grammar allows for probabilistic and social learning to acquire language-specific rules, it states that this would not be possible without an innate knowledge of the syntactic and phonological structure (Yang, 2004; Chomsky, 2005).  (2008) found that children learnt irregular forms of artificial verbs and noun plurals through negative evidence, and interestingly there was an interaction of word form and age: In 3 year old infants, negative evidence proved to be more effective for noun plurals, whilst 5 year olds used it for verbs more than nouns.

A central part in the debate for and against a Universal Grammar is whether or not a child is capable of deducing a grammatical structure from the input. However, proponents of a social view of language acquisition suggest that social cues give sufficient infant-directed speech certain properties that facilitate language learning (Uther, Knoll, & Burnham, 2007; Goldstein & Schwade, 2009; Saxton, 2000; Saxton et al., 2005; Kuhl, 2004). A comparison of infant-directed speech and foreigner-directed speech by Uther et al. (2007) has shown that they both share features, such as vowel-hyperarticulation, which are important in making sense of language.

Repetitions alone would not give sufficient variation of input. However, parents offer the child a series of variation sets by repeating utterances with small changes, leading to changes in the syntactical structure but not the content.

 

For example (taken from Brodsky et al. 2007)

You got to push them to school.
Push them.
Push them to school.
Take them to school.
You got to take them to school. 

such variations would be ideal for the childs word and syntax acquisition process. And indeed, Kntay and Slobin (1996) found that they make up 20 % of child-directed speech in Turkish. In an analysis of childrens speech, it was found that there is a high correlation with parents variation sets and subsequent language and syntax use in children (Brodsky et al. , 2007). In a quantitative analysis of motherese, Brodsky et al. (2007) were able to construct an algorithm capable of acquiring a relatively high-coverage of generative grammar. that some of the grammatical features are simply more common because they are more readily acquired by probabilistic learning processes. Taken together, this evidence suggests that social interactions play a major role in language acquisition, a view for which early approaches to Universal Grammar only left little room (Chomsky, 2005).

 

Evidence from Language Evolution

Universal Grammar is assumed to be expressed through genes. A distinct linguistic system would have evolved through natural selection; for example, favouring a mutation that led to the rewiring of neural networks to accommodate basic syntactical structures . and than gene-culture co-evolutionary account would favour general learning rules over linguistic, , and further research is necessary to generalize these findings to more complex syntaxes. (Chomsky, 2005).

Conclusion

Language Acquisition

To understand what precisely this difference is is to give ‘a rational account of this behavior, i.e., a theory of the speaker’s linguistic intuition . . . the goal of linguistic theory’ (Chomsky  1995/1975: 95)—in other words, a psychology, and ultimately, biology of human language. Once this position—lately dubbed the biolinguistic approach (Jenkins 1999, Chomsky 2000)—is accepted, it follows that language, just like all other biological objects, ought to be studied following the standard methodology in natural sciences (Chomsky  1975, 1980, 1986, 1995a). The postulation of innate linguistic knowledge, the Universal Grammar (UG), is a case in point. One of the major motivations for innateness of linguistic knowledge comes from the Argument from the Poverty of Stimulus (APS) (Chomsky, 1980). A well-known example concerns the structure dependency in language syntax and children’s knowledge of it in the absence of learning experience (Chomsky 1975, Crain & Nakayama 1987).

 

References

Chomsky  1995/1975: 95 . Jenkins 1999, Chomsky 2000 .Brodsky, P., Waterfall, H. R., & Edelman, S. (2007). Characterizing motherese: On the computational structure of child-directed language. In D. S. McNamara & J. G. Trafton (Eds.), Proceedings of the 29th Cognitive Science Society Conference (pp. 833838).
Brown, R., & Hanlon, C. (1970). Cognition and the development of language. In J. R. Hayes (Ed.), Proceedings from Fourth Annual Symposium on Developmental Linguistics, Carnegie-Mellon University, Pittsburgh Pa., April 1112, 1968 (pp. 1153). New York: Wiley.
Chater, N., & Christiansen, M. H. (2009). Language acquisition meets language evolution. Cognitive Science, 34 (7), 11311157 . doi:10.1111/j.1551-6709.2009.01049.x
Chater, N., & Manning, C. D. (2006). Probabilistic models of language processing 

 

Syntax. Intro.To Linguistics

SYNTAX

SYNTAX

A.                 Definition of syntax

             

        Based on the experts, Syntax is a central component of human language. Language has often been characterized as a systematic correlation between certain types of gestures and meaning.          

          Syntax can thus be given the following characterization, taken from Matthews (1982:1) the term ‘syntax’ is from the Ancient Greek syntaxis, a verbal noun which literally means ‘arrangement’ or ‘setting out together’. Traditionally, it refers to the branch of grammar dealing with the ways in which words, with or without appropriate inflections, are arranged to show connections of meaning within the sentence.

           Based on the experts

1.      (Chomsky, 2002)

      

        Syntax is the study of the principles and processes by which sentences are constructed in particular languages. Syntactic investigation of a given language has as its goal the construction of a grammar that can be viewed as a device of some sort for producing the sentences of the language under analysis.

2.      (Tserdanelis and Wong, 2004)

         The study of syntax is the study of how words combine to from phrases and ultimately sentences in languages. Because it consists of phrases that are put together in a particular way, a sentences has a structure. The structure consists of way in which the words are organized into phrases and the phrases are organized into larger phrases. The study of phrases and sentences structure is sometimes called grammar. 

3.      . (Hawkins, 2001)

        The syntax of a language is the set of properties which determine the construction of sentences in that language. If a sentence is constructed according to those properties it is well formed or grammatical. If a sentence is constructed  in violation of those properties it is ill-formed or ungrammatical. The study of syntax involves uncovering those properties of language which are involved in the construction of grammatical sentence in particular languages.

4.      (O’grady, at all.,1989)

      syntax  is the system of rules and categories that allows words to be combined to the form of sentence. The data that linguists use to study syntax consists primarily of judgments about grammaticality of individual sentence. Roughly speaking, a sentence is considered grammatical if speakers judge it to be a possible sentence of their language. (O’grady, at all.,1989)

5.      (Fromkin and Rodman,1983)

     Syntax is that part of our linguistics knowledge which concerns the structure of sentences. Knowing a language also means being able to put words together to form sentences to express our thoughts.

             From the experts’ explanation above we can conclude that  syntax is the study of internal structure of sentences. In this case, it explains how words are arranged become phrases and clauses for constructing sentence. It is commonly we call structure. Structure manages how words can be combined with another for creating good sentence.

                                                                              

References

Chomsky, N. (1957 & 2002). Syntactic Structures. Berlin: Walter de Gruyter GmBH.

Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman. (1983). An Introduction to Language.New York: CBS college publising.

Fromkin, Victoria, Robert Rodman, Nina Hyams. (2007). An introduction to Language. Boston: Thomson Wadsworth.

Hawkins, R. (2001). Second Language Syntax: A Generative Introduction.Massachusetts: Blackwell Publishers .

Murcia,M.C and Diane Larsen Freeman. (1999). The Grammar Book: An ESL/EFL teacher's course. Boston: Internasional Thomson Publising.

O''grady,William,Michael Dobrovolsky,Mark Aronoff. (1989). Contemporary Linguistics An introduction. New York: Martin's Press.

Robert, D. and Van Valin,J.R. (2001). An Introdution to Linguistic.Cambridge: Cambridge University Press.

Tserdanelis,G. and Wai Yi Peggy Wong. (Eds.). (2004). Language File: Material for an Introduction to Language & Linguistics (9th ed.).Columbus: Department of Linguistics, The Ohio State University Press.